| Summary, etc. |
Table of Contents<br/>Preface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix<br/>1. Essential Concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1<br/>Basic Electronics 1<br/>Ideal Simplifications of Academia 4<br/>Interconnections 4<br/>Basic Components 9<br/>Capacitors 9<br/>Resistors 12<br/>Inductors 14<br/>Voltage Sources and Batteries 15<br/>Current Sources 16<br/>Switches and Relays 17<br/>Operational Amplifiers 17<br/>Voltage Comparators 18<br/>Nonideal Digital Devices 19<br/>Signal Integrity 23<br/>Summary and Conclusions 25<br/>Further Reading 26<br/>2. Architecting the System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27<br/>Preliminary Ideas 27<br/>Simulate or Build 28<br/>Through-Hole/Leaded Components (Obsolete) 28<br/>Discrete Gate Logic (Obsolete) 28<br/>Modern Design Strategies 29<br/>Mostly Digital Design 31<br/>DSP Methods: Versatility and Limits 33<br/>vii<br/>Digital Control Methods: DCU, MCU, MPU, FPGA, CPLD, and ASIC 35<br/>Terminology in MCU and MPU Specifications 36<br/>Hardware Controllers 38<br/>Software Controllers 39<br/>Computers Versus Controllers 40<br/>Raspberry Pi (MPU) Versus Arduino (MCU) 40<br/>Multipurpose and Specialty MCUs 41<br/>Chip Set Methods 42<br/>System Architecture Options 44<br/>Determine Peripherals and Interconnects 49<br/>Avoid Serial Communication Bottlenecks 54<br/>Use Direct Memory Access for Data Transfer 55<br/>Determine DSP Methods 55<br/>Check for DSP Bottlenecks 57<br/>Improve DSP Speed 59<br/>Determine DCU Internal Features 60<br/>Physical Package Considerations 65<br/>Off-Chip Features and Support 66<br/>Pulling It All Together 68<br/>Picking a DCU Configuration and Your MCU/MPU 68<br/>Specialized Niche Function or Feature 68<br/>Multi-MCU Systems 69<br/>General-Use MCU Systems 69<br/>Picking a Specific MCU 69<br/>Summary and Conclusions 70<br/>Further Reading 71<br/>3. Robust Digital Communication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73<br/>Digital Signals, Physical Considerations, and Connections 74<br/>Limitations of Ground-Referenced Digital Signals 74<br/>Low-Voltage Differential Signaling 75<br/>Organizing Interconnects for Speed and Signal Integrity 77<br/>Lumped Versus Distributed Networks 79<br/>Clock Distribution 86<br/>Digital Communication: Parallel Versus Serial Ports 91<br/>Clocking Methods for Serial Ports 91<br/>Starting Edge Synchronization 91<br/>Parallel Clock 92<br/>Manchester Code Self-Clocking 92<br/>Embedded Clock and Run Length Limited Codes 93<br/>Digital Communication: Features and Definitions 93<br/>Serial Data: Shared Ground, Low Speed 97<br/>viii | Table of Contents<br/>Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter 97<br/>Inter-Integrated Circuit and System Management Bus 98<br/>Serial Peripheral Interface 99<br/>Single-Wire Interfaces 101<br/>Serial Data: Shared Ground, High Speed 101<br/>Data Between Boards or Between Systems: Wired Methods 103<br/>RS-232: Serial Data over Cable 103<br/>RS-485: Differential Serial Data over Cable 105<br/>Controller Area Network 107<br/>Serial Data for Computer Systems 108<br/>Universal Serial Bus 108<br/>Serial Advanced Technology Attachment 110<br/>Peripheral Component Interconnect Express 111<br/>Ethernet 113<br/>Wireless Serial Interfaces 115<br/>WiFi 115<br/>Bluetooth 116<br/>Bluetooth Low Energy 117<br/>ZigBee 118<br/>Z-Wave 119<br/>Adaptive Network Topology 120<br/>Other Data Communication Methods 120<br/>Infrared 120<br/>Fiber-Optic Data: Go Fast, Go Far 120<br/>JTAG: PCB Access for Test and Configuration 121<br/>Summary and Conclusions 123<br/>Further Reading 124<br/>4. Power Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127<br/>Split Phase AC Mains Power 128<br/>AC Power Safety: Defining the Problem 129<br/>High-Voltage and Low-Voltage Partitioning 129<br/>Safe Failure Methods and Single Fault Safe Scenarios 130<br/>Overcurrent Protection Methods and the Weakest Link 131<br/>AC/DC Conversion 133<br/>The Classic Approach: 60 Hz Transformers 133<br/>Off-line Switchers 134<br/>Multi-PCB Systems: The Need for Local Power Regulation 135<br/>DC/DC Conversion: Linear Versus Switching 135<br/>Linear Regulators: Conceptual 136<br/>Emitter Follower Regulators Versus LDO 136<br/>Switching Step-Down (Buck) Converter 138<br/>Table of Contents | ix<br/>Switching Step-Up (Boost) Converter 140<br/>Switching Buck-Boost Converter 141<br/>Picking Regulators and Configuring a Power System 142<br/>Including Power Supply Monitors 146<br/>Power Bypass, Decoupling, and Filtering 146<br/>Radiated Noise Reduction: RC Snubbers, Ferrites, and Filters 147<br/>Power Output Noise Reduction: Damped LPF Networks<br/>and Cascaded Regulators 148<br/>Power Grid Current Surges Due to Digital Logic 148<br/>Low-Impedance Power and Ground Planes 149<br/>Power Supply Bypass Filtering: Distributed Stabilization 150<br/>Bypass Capacitors at High Frequencies 151<br/>Power Bypass Capacitor Value and Distribution 153<br/>Summary and Conclusions 156<br/>Further Reading 157<br/>5. Battery Power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159<br/>Battery Basics: Definitions 160<br/>Decision Guidelines for Rechargeable or Single-Use Batteries 164<br/>Defining Power Requirements 165<br/>Battery Discharge Versus Functional Voltage Range 166<br/>Battery Types by Chemistry 167<br/>Discharging Behavior of Batteries 171<br/>Designing a Battery Set: Single Use and Multiple Cells 174<br/>Designing a Rechargeable Custom Battery Pack 177<br/>Charging Batteries 183<br/>Smart Batteries 185<br/>Regulations and Safety for Batteries 187<br/>Other Energy Storage and Access Methods 188<br/>Supercapacitors 188<br/>Hydrogen Fuel Cells 188<br/>Flow Batteries 190<br/>Wireless Power 190<br/>Solid State Batteries 192<br/>Summary and Conclusions 193<br/>Further Reading 194<br/>6. Electromagnetic Interference and Electrostatic Discharge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195<br/>Preliminary Ideas 196<br/>Intrinsic Noise 197<br/>General Strategy Dealing with EMI 198<br/>Regulations and Requirements 199<br/>x | Table of Contents<br/>Visualizations of Noise Coupling 201<br/>Frequency Domain Analysis of EMI 203<br/>Grounding 209<br/>Reducing Conducted Emissions to AC Power Mains 214<br/>Cable Interconnect Strategies 215<br/>Reducing Noise Generation at the Source 217<br/>Slower Clocks and Softer Transitions 217<br/>LVDS for Digital Data to Reduce EMI 218<br/>Spread Spectrum Clocks to Reduce EMI 219<br/>EMI Reduction for Switched-Mode Power Supplies 219<br/>Unintentional EMI Antennas 221<br/>EMI Suppression on Motors 221<br/>Reducing Noise Coupling Between On-Board Devices 222<br/>Identifying the Big Talkers and Sensitive Listeners 223<br/>Floor-Planning the PCB for Noise 224<br/>Faraday Cage Methods to Contain or Protect from EMI 226<br/>Making Circuits Less Noise Sensitive 227<br/>Noise-Sensitive High-Impedance Nodes 227<br/>Noise Immunity of Differential Signals 228<br/>Noise Immunity Through Bandwidth Limiting 229<br/>Suppressing Noise into and Out of the System: Faraday Cage Techniques 231<br/>Electrostatic Discharge Protection 234<br/>Summary and Conclusions 241<br/>Further Reading 243<br/>7. Data Converters: ADCs and DACs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245<br/>DAC Performance Basics 246<br/>ADC Performance Basics 251<br/>Antialiasing Filters for ADC Inputs 254<br/>Pulse Width Modulation DACs 255<br/>Arbitrary Waveform Generation by Direct Digital Synthesis 260<br/>Summary and Conclusions 261<br/>Further Reading 262<br/>8. Driving Peripheral Devices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263<br/>Switched Driver Circuits 264<br/>High- and Low-Side Switching 264<br/>High-Power Load Isolation 265<br/>Drive Signal Strategies 266<br/>Power Transistor Selection 267<br/>Power Transistor Thermal Performance 272<br/>Driving LEDs and Buzzers 275<br/>Table of Contents | xi<br/>Selection of Static Displays 278<br/>Streaming Video Output 279<br/>Driving Inductive Loads 280<br/>Transient Current in a Switched Inductor 280<br/>Driving Solenoids and Relays 282<br/>H-Bridge Drive Circuits 283<br/>Driving DC Motors 286<br/>Motor Selection 286<br/>Brushed DC Motor Driver Circuit 288<br/>Brushless DC Motors: Single and Three Phase 288<br/>Motors with Integrated Control Electronics 289<br/>Stepper Motors 290<br/>Voice Coil Motors 292<br/>Stall Currents and Protecting from Self-Destruction 293<br/>Audio Outputs 294<br/>Summary and Conclusions 296<br/>Further Reading 297<br/>9. Sensing Peripheral Devices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299<br/>Sensors for Everything 300<br/>Sensor Output Types 300<br/>Sensor Data Capture and Calibration 302<br/>Data Capture Method 302<br/>Sensor Calibration 303<br/>Sensor Response Time 303<br/>Two-State Devices: Switches, Optical Interrupters, and Hall Sensors 304<br/>Position and Rotation Encoders 307<br/>Analog-Linear Sensors: A Closer Look 308<br/>Characteristics of Analog Sensors 309<br/>Signal Processing for Analog Sensors 311<br/>Sensor Calibration 312<br/>Current Sensing Methods 315<br/>Voltage Sensing 317<br/>Specific Sensor Applications 318<br/>Pressure Sensors 318<br/>Temperature Sensors 319<br/>Strain Gauges 322<br/>Sound and Microphones 325<br/>Image Sensors and Video Cameras 329<br/>Touch Panels 332<br/>Summary and Conclusions 337<br/>Further Reading 338<br/>xii | Table of Contents<br/>10. Digital Feedback Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339<br/>Overview of Sequence and Feedback Control 340<br/>Digital Versus Analog Circuit Methods 342<br/>Preliminary Definitions and Concepts 344<br/>Transfer Functions, Block Diagrams, and Basic Feedback 345<br/>Transient Response Terminology 347<br/>DUC Performance Selection 349<br/>Sequence Control 354<br/>Select Topics in Analog Control Systems 359<br/>Linear Systems and Approximations 361<br/>Bode Plots for Stable Control Loops 363<br/>Bode Plots for Gain and Phase Response 365<br/>Bode Plots for Gain and Phase of a Control Loop 367<br/>Bode Plots for Integral and Derivative Response 370<br/>Bode Plots of Fixed Time Delays 371<br/>Transition to Digital Control 372<br/>Determine DUC Stability 373<br/>DAC Performance Requirements 374<br/>Accuracy of Control Math 376<br/>ADC Performance Requirements 376<br/>ADC Sampling Rate Determination 377<br/>Final Selection of ADC and DAC 378<br/>Dual-Clock Strategy for Improved Phase Margin 378<br/>Digital Trapezoid Integration 379<br/>Digital Integration: Limit Windup and Avoid Saturation 380<br/>Digital Derivative by Adjacent Samples 381<br/>Additive Time Delays in the DSP 382<br/>PID Control Implementation 382<br/>Response Variants: P, I, PI, and PID 385<br/>Typical Effects of Gain Adjustments 389<br/>Ziegler Nichols Tuning 390<br/>Chien–Hrones–Reswick Tuning 394<br/>Component Variance and Control Tuning 396<br/>Adaptive Control Methods 397<br/>Trajectory Control Methods 399<br/>Summary and Conclusions 404<br/>Further Reading 406<br/>11. Schematic to PCB. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407<br/>PCB Terminology 408<br/>PCB Design (EDA) Tools 411<br/>Getting Started 411<br/>Table of Contents | xiii<br/>Component Selection 411<br/>Selecting RLC Components 412<br/>Picking Connectors for Off-Board Wires 415<br/>Selecting IC Packages 416<br/>Checking Component End of Life and High-Quantity Availability 417<br/>Including Test Access and Interface Ports 417<br/>Schematics 418<br/>Schematic Sheets and General Organization 418<br/>Symbol Organization for Integrated Circuits 422<br/>Placeholders and “Do Not Populate” Components 423<br/>Provide Generous Commentary 423<br/>Avoid Ambiguity 424<br/>Call Out Items Requiring Special Attention 424<br/>Bill of Materials 425<br/>Defining Physical, Control, and Data Layers 425<br/>Defining a Component Footprint 426<br/>Mechanical Definition of a PCB 428<br/>Metric Versus Imperial Measurements 428<br/>PCB Mounting 429<br/>Electrical Grounding Through Mechanical Mounts 430<br/>Drilled Hole Spacing and Keep-Outs 430<br/>Cables to the PCB 430<br/>PCB Alignment References 431<br/>Conformal Coating 432<br/>Test Fixture Using Bed of Nails 432<br/>Defining the PCB Layer Stack-Up 432<br/>Interplane Capacitance 438<br/>Physical Design Rules 439<br/>High-Voltage Spacing Rules 443<br/>Component Placement Strategy 444<br/>General Interconnection Methods 447<br/>Easy Estimations of RLC Parasitics 447<br/>Maximum Trace Currents 448<br/>Determine Minimum Geometry Trace Requirements 449<br/>Vias and Micro-Vias 450<br/>Vias for Thermal Conduction 454<br/>Specialized Interconnection Methods 455<br/>Differential Signal Routing 455<br/>Microstrip Transmission Lines 455<br/>Stripline Transmission Lines 456<br/>Differential Microstrips and Striplines 457<br/>Kelvin Connections 457<br/>xiv | Table of Contents<br/>EMI and ESD Strategies 458<br/>Solid Ground Plane for Less EMI 458<br/>Flooded Signal Layer Grounds for Less EMI 459<br/>ESD Interconnect 460<br/>High-Frequency Power Bypass Methods 461<br/>Features for Manufacture and Assembly 461<br/>Consistent Copper Coverage 461<br/>Panelization and Break-Apart Methods 462<br/>Fabrication Notes 463<br/>Manufacturing (Gerber) Files 464<br/>Summary and Conclusions 466<br/>Further Reading 467<br/>12. Software and Coding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469<br/>Coding Languages 470<br/>Operating Systems 470<br/>Picking an RTOS 471<br/>Additional RTOS Considerations 474<br/>Configuring Ports and Processors 475<br/>Device Drivers 476<br/>Problematic Portability 477<br/>Peripheral Communication 477<br/>Initiating Peripheral Communication 478<br/>Device Driver Features 479<br/>Modularity/Hierarchy for DD Code 480<br/>Testing the DD 480<br/>Defensive Coding Methods 480<br/>Preprocess Data Inputs (Invalid Data) 481<br/>Preprocess Data Inputs (Bandwidth Restrictions) 481<br/>Preprocess Data (Human Input) 481<br/>Background Reinitialization 482<br/>Watchdog Timers 483<br/>Multicontroller Coding 484<br/>Suggestions for Well-Organized Code 485<br/>Summary and Conclusions 487<br/>Further Reading 488<br/>13. Special Systems and Applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489<br/>Different Electronics for Different Priorities 490<br/>Design Priorities 490<br/>Product Cost 490<br/>Quality and Reliability 490<br/>Table of Contents | xv<br/>Power Consumption 491<br/>Safety 491<br/>Backward Compatibility 491<br/>Ruggedness and User Abuse 491<br/>Capability for Repair 492<br/>Navigating the Regulatory Maze 492<br/>Risk Analysis 497<br/>Aviation Electronics (Avionics) 499<br/>Design Priorities 499<br/>Special Needs 499<br/>Regulations, Certifications, and Approvals 500<br/>Satellites and Spacecraft (Astrionics) 500<br/>Radiation 501<br/>Thermal Extremes 502<br/>Vibration, Shock, and Acceleration 502<br/>Vacuum Environments 502<br/>Component Selection and NASA-Approved Parts 503<br/>PCB Materials and Layout 503<br/>Limited Life of Spacecraft 504<br/>Regulations, Certifications, and Approvals 505<br/>Military Electronics 506<br/>Design Priorities and Unique Requirements 507<br/>Regulations, Certifications, and Approvals 507<br/>Medical Devices 509<br/>Regulations, Certifications, and Approvals 509<br/>Clean Functionality Throughout EMC Tests 511<br/>Special Needs 512<br/>Regulatory Requirements for Software and Firmware 515<br/>Automotive 516<br/>Typical Electronic Control Units 516<br/>Design Priorities and Special Needs 517<br/>Regulations, Certifications, and Approvals 518<br/>Consumer Electronics 521<br/>Design Priorities 521<br/>Special Interest Groups, Technology Coalitions, and Technical Standards 522<br/>Regulations, Certifications, and Approvals 523<br/>Restriction of Hazardous Substances 524<br/>Registration, Evaluation, Authorization,<br/>and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) 524<br/>Industrial Automation 525<br/>Summary and Conclusions 528<br/>Further Reading 529<br/>xvi | Table of Contents<br/>14. Creating Great Products. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531<br/>Create Products That Solve Problems or Fulfill a Need 532<br/>Identify the Target Market 533<br/>Identify What the Customer Wants 533<br/>Examine Competing Products 534<br/>Define the Value Proposition 535<br/>Determine Viable Pricing 535<br/>Determine a Properly Timed Market Window 535<br/>Establish Coalitions and Strategic Partners 536<br/>Focus on Ease of Use 536<br/>Determine the Needed Resources 537<br/>Get Design Specification Consensus 537<br/>Minimal Design and Feature Creep 537<br/>Identify Obstacles Early 538<br/>Get User Feedback on Prototype Builds 538<br/>Make It Easy to Manufacture 539<br/>Summary and Conclusions 539<br/>Further Reading 540<br/>Glossary of Acronyms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541<br/>Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551<br/>Table of Contents | xvii<br/> |
